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Arthroscopy and Surgical Techniques

Wrist arthroscopy for intra-articular pathology, focusing on TFCC repair (Palmer I vs II) and surgical techniques for DRUJ stabilization.

Overview

Arthroscopic techniques offer distinct advantages over open surgery in specific contexts, including shorter hospital stays and significantly lower overall complication rates for ankle osteoarthritis [5]. For dorsal ganglion cysts, arthroscopic and open approaches demonstrate comparable outcome profiles regarding recurrence and complications [6]. Arthroscopic treatment of talus bipartitus is a safe and effective option with excellent short- and long-term outcomes [8]. Furthermore, arthroscopic Bankart suture repair provides advantages of less morbidity, lower cost, less pain, and preservation of motion [48].

In the hip, postless arthroscopy may adequately be performed with a variety of techniques [20]. For gluteus medius tears, the surgical indication is in symptomatic patients having failed a primary nonoperative protocol [21]. Arthroscopic debridement and microfracture for osteochondral lesions of the talar dome consistently achieve good to excellent outcomes in greater than 80% of patients [13].

Despite these positive signals, additional long-term comparative studies are needed to accurately differentiate the efficacy of open and arthroscopic techniques [1]. Smaller studies that include second-look arthroscopy provide the most convincing evidence for the efficacy of combined procedures [2]. More prospective studies comparing open and arthroscopic excision are needed to delineate if there is a true functional benefit for ganglion cysts [7]. Diagnostic arthroscopy performed in the setting of an unclear preoperative diagnosis yielded limited diagnostic benefit [4]. Randomized controlled trials are needed to develop a nonoperative strategy for gluteus medius tears [21].

Anatomy & Pathophysiology

Osseous Deformity and Fracture Management

Long-term follow-up of forearm shortening and volar radiocarpal capsulotomy for wrist flexion deformity in children with amyoplasia demonstrates that initial improvement in wrist position is not maintained [14]. Isolated wedge osteotomy of the ulna for mild Madelung’s deformity improves the appearance of the wrist and relieves pain without compromising function [41]. Satisfactory wrist function can be achieved with operative treatment for fractures of the dorsal articular margin of the distal part of the radius with dorsal radiocarpal subluxation in most patients [28]. Distal radioulnar joint instability in adolescents is often preceded by fracture of the distal radius and is often not an isolated pathoanatomical problem [49].

Ligamentous and Capsular Pathology

Triquetral impingement ligament tear (TILT) repair results in improved wrist motion and strength in all cases [31]. Arthroscopic management of dorsal wrist impingement is associated with a lower risk of flexion loss compared to open dorsal wrist capsulectomy [42]. Midcarpal motion of rheumatoid wrists in the flexion-extension plane is better preserved than previously thought [39]. A thorough wrist examination remains integral to any arthroscopic assessment [44].

Kinematics and Functional Assessment

Flexible electrogoniometry is accurate and reliable for measuring the velocity, range, and smoothness of wrist circumduction [32]. Active magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) during active wrist motion may be useful in the investigation of dynamic wrist instability in vivo [35]. Smartphone-based measurements of wrist range of motion are feasible and highly accurate, serving as a powerful tool for outcome studies after wrist surgery [40]. Camera-tracking gaming control devices demonstrate high test-retest reliability for wrist extension and moderate reliability for flexion [43]. Self-taken photographs and line tracings are unreliable for remote assessment of wrist ROM, potentially yielding falsely lower results due to submaximal effort from task distraction [46].

Postoperative Rehabilitation and Outcomes

Starting early range of motion (ROM) after surgery enables patients to regain functional wrist and forearm ROM earlier with fewer therapy visits required following volar plating of a distal radius fracture [45]. Endoscopic carpal tunnel release during distal radial fracture fixation may reduce the incidence of finger stiffness in patients with type C distal radial fractures [50]. Significant differences in range of motion and grip strength between differing methods of osteosynthesis for four-corner arthrodesis are unlikely to be clinically relevant [38]. Proximal row carpectomy results in slightly better movement of the wrist with fewer surgical complications and no need for hardware removal compared to four-corner arthrodesis, based on a retrospective study with a mean follow-up of 17 years [51]. A sensorimotor control-based exercise program (SMoC-Wrist) was modified for patients with nonspecific chronic wrist pain based on recent insights into sensorimotor control principles and wrist kinematics [37].

Classification

Surgical Navigation Systems: Computer aided orthopedic surgery (CAOS) classifies surgical navigation systems by their virtual representation as image-free or image-based [33].

Medial Meniscus Ramp Tears: A surgically relevant classification system for medial meniscus ramp tears, based on tear morphology, allows for the evaluation of differing repair patterns and their effects on postoperative clinical outcomes [25].

Other Considerations: Subtalar arthroscopy is a standardised and reproducible procedure with new diagnostic and minimally invasive therapeutic options [9]. Computerized tomographic arthrography and arthroscopy enabled accurate definition of an unusual anomaly of the scapula [12]. The routine use of arthroscopy has led to the identification of previously unrecognized pathological conditions and significant new information about traditional problems [3]. Smaller studies that include second-look arthroscopy provide the most convincing evidence for the efficacy of combined procedures [2]. Diagnostic arthroscopy performed in the setting of an unclear preoperative diagnosis yielded limited diagnostic benefit [4]. A prospective, randomized comparison of arthroscopic versus open dorsal ganglion excision evaluated rates of recurrence and residual pain [1]. The validity of metrics used by the ArthroVR scoring system in evaluating surgeon expertise and its use as a measurement device is questioned [34].

Clinical Presentation

Arthroscopic surgery has led to the identification of previously unrecognized pathological conditions and significant new information about traditional problems [3]. Diagnostic arthroscopy performed in the setting of an unclear preoperative diagnosis yielded limited diagnostic benefit [4].

Wrist Pathology: Wrist arthroscopy serves as a crucial tool for diagnosing intra-articular pathology [26]. Surgeons must be vigilant during arthroscopy to avoid overlooking concomitant peripheral tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex, as physical examination and MRI provide little diagnostic information [19]. Arthroscopy allows for the simultaneous treatment of ganglions and other pathologies [24].

Subtalar Joint: Subtalar arthroscopy provides new diagnostic and minimally invasive therapeutic options [9].

Scapular Anomaly: Computerized tomographic arthrography and arthroscopy enabled accurate definition of an unusual anomaly of the scapula [12].

Investigations

Plain radiography: Diagnostic arthroscopy has led to the identification of previously unrecognized pathological conditions and significant new information about traditional problems [3]. However, diagnostic arthroscopy performed in the setting of an unclear preoperative diagnosis yielded limited diagnostic benefit [4]. The arthroscopic findings prior to high tibial osteotomy appeared to have little, if any, predictive value in evaluating patients for this procedure [56].

MRI: Advances in 3-dimensional MRI techniques create the opportunity to improve understanding of articular morphology and joint biomechanics, with the potential to enhance preoperative planning and the effectiveness of arthroscopic techniques [36]. Dorsal wrist capsular impingement is a clinical diagnosis; magnetic resonance imaging may be helpful in evaluating for other pathologies [60]. Surgeons must be vigilant during arthroscopy to avoid overlooking concomitant peripheral tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex, as physical examination and MRI provide little diagnostic information [19]. The diagnostic test accuracy of X-ray arthrography for triangular fibrocartilaginous complex injury is limited [52].

CT: Computerized tomographic arthrography and arthroscopy enabled accurate definition of an unusual anomaly of the scapula [12].

Other Considerations: Subtalar arthroscopy is a standardised and reproducible procedure with new diagnostic and minimally invasive therapeutic options [9]. Lesser metatarsal phalangeal joint arthroscopy has a high overall level of anatomic accuracy (96%), allowing it to be considered a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of these joints [57].

Treatment

Non-Operative

Surgical intervention for gluteus medius tears is indicated for symptomatic patients who have failed a primary nonoperative protocol [21].

Operative

Indications: Diagnostic arthroscopy performed in the setting of an unclear preoperative diagnosis yields limited diagnostic benefit [4]. However, routine use of arthroscopy has led to the identification of previously unrecognized pathological conditions and significant new information about traditional problems [3]. Surgical indication for gluteus medius tears involves symptomatic patients who have failed a primary nonoperative protocol [21].

Surgical Approach / Technique: Arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis is associated with a shorter hospital stay and significantly lower overall complication rates compared to open surgery [5]. Arthroscopic management serves as a minimally invasive alternative to open surgery for the diagnosis and treatment of early-stage tuberculosis of the ankle [61]. Subtalar arthroscopy is a standardised and reproducible procedure that offers new diagnostic and minimally invasive therapeutic options [9]. Arthroscopic debridement and microfracture as primary treatment for osteochondral lesions of the talar dome consistently achieve good to excellent outcomes in greater than 80% of patients [13]. Arthroscopic treatment of talus bipartitus is a safe and effective option with excellent short- and long-term outcomes [8]. Arthroscopic triangular fibrocartilage complex treatment in paediatric patients is safe and yields favourable subjective and objective outcomes and patient/parent satisfaction [29]. Needle arthroscopy for synovial biopsy of metacarpophalangeal joints is a simple, safe, and well-tolerated technique that requires arthroscopic experience [16]. Arthroscopic arthrolysis for stiffness after total knee replacement provides moderate improvements in range of motion and functional knee scores, comparing well with other treatment methods [30]. Simultaneous bilateral hip arthroscopy for femoroacetabular impingement is a safe and effective treatment option with outcomes comparable to staged procedures [23].

Other Considerations: Arthroscopic and open excision approaches for dorsal ganglion cysts have comparable outcome profiles regarding recurrence and complications [6]. Smaller studies that include second-look arthroscopy provide the most convincing evidence for the efficacy of combined arthroscopic procedures [2]. Arthroscopic dorsal ganglion excision requires additional long-term comparative studies to accurately differentiate its efficacy from open techniques [1]. More prospective studies comparing open and arthroscopic excision are needed to delineate if there is a true functional benefit for ganglion cysts [7]. Patients with prior knee arthroscopy had some inferior patient-reported outcome scores after medial opening-wedge high tibial osteotomy, but overall clinical improvements were similar to those in control groups [11]. Suggested guidelines for the practice of arthroscopic surgery cover privileges, training, practice standards, continuing education, and performance review to ensure patient safety and surgeon competence [47].

Complications

General Surgical Approach: Arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis is associated with significantly lower overall complication rates compared to open surgery [5]. Similarly, arthroscopic subtalar arthrodesis results in fewer complications compared to open surgery [63]. For dorsal ganglion cyst excision, arthroscopic and open approaches have comparable outcome profiles regarding complications [6]. Arthroscopic resection of dorsal wrist ganglion is associated with low complication rates over a minimum follow-up of 4 years [53]. Additionally, arthroscopy-assisted absorbable screw combined with Kirschner wire internal fixation for Sanders type III displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures is associated with a low incidence of postoperative complications [64].

Fluid Extravasation: Fluid extravasation is a potential pitfall and complication during hip arthroscopy [17].

Heterotopic Ossification: Heterotopic ossification of the elbow is a potentially serious complication that can be addressed with aggressive early arthroscopic debridement and postoperative radiation therapy [22].

Recovery

Light activity (weeks): Evidence does not provide specific week ranges for light activity or return to desk work across the cited procedures. However, arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis is associated with a shorter hospital stay compared to open surgery [5].

Full activity (months): Specific month ranges for return to manual work or sport are not detailed in the provided evidence. Arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis is associated with significantly lower overall complication rates compared to open surgery [5].

Complete recovery / outcome plateau (months): Long-term follow-up data indicates specific timelines for outcome stabilization in certain pathologies. At an average follow-up of 10 years, proximal row carpectomy is a reliable and durable procedure for patients with Lichtman stage IIIA or IIIB Kienböck's disease [68]. Good clinical results observed in patients 10 years after radial shortening osteotomy for Kienböck disease are likely to remain stable at 20 years after surgery [67]. At an average follow-up of 4.5 years, 28% of hands had persistent symptoms after carpal tunnel release by the Agee endoscopic technique [66].

Rehabilitation protocol: The provided evidence does not specify rehabilitation protocols, including PT phasing, immobilisation duration, or weight-bearing progression.

Functional milestones: Arthroscopic thermal shrinkage is effective for the majority of patients with mild to moderate chronic distal radioulnar joint instability in long-term follow-up [55]. Periacetabular osteotomy provides pain relief and improved hip function in most patients over short- to midterm follow-up [54]. Patients with prior knee arthroscopy had some inferior patient-reported outcome scores after medial opening-wedge high tibial osteotomy (MOWHTO) [11]. Overall clinical improvements after MOWHTO were similar in patients with prior arthroscopy and control groups [11].

Other Considerations: Arthroscopic dorsal ganglion excision requires additional long-term comparative studies to accurately differentiate its efficacy from open techniques [1]. Smaller studies that include second-look arthroscopy provide the most convincing evidence for the efficacy of combined arthroscopic procedures [2]. Routine use of arthroscopy has led to the identification of previously unrecognized pathological conditions and significant new information about traditional problems [3]. Arthroscopic and open excision of dorsal ganglion cysts have comparable outcome profiles regarding recurrence and complications [6]. More prospective studies comparing open and arthroscopic excision of ganglion cysts are needed to delineate if there is a true functional benefit [7]. Arthroscopic treatment of talus bipartitus can be a safe and effective option with excellent short- and long-term outcomes [8]. Long-term follow-up of forearm shortening and volar radiocarpal capsulotomy for wrist flexion deformity in children with amyoplasia shows that the initial improvement in wrist position is not maintained [14]. Aggressive early arthroscopic debridement after discovery of moderate to severe heterotopic ossification of the elbow, with the addition of postoperative radiation therapy, has proved effective in addressing this complication [22]. A change in treatment plan was made in 47% of cases during staging arthroscopy for chondral defects of the knee, indicating its importance in determining the most appropriate treatment plan [65]. Results of carpal tunnel release by the Agee endoscopic technique were scarcely different from the conventional technique, with no patient requiring reoperation [66].

Key Evidence

  • [L1] Additional long-term comparative studies are needed to accurately differentiate the efficacy of open and arthroscopic techniques. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.01.009)
  • [L5] The authors believe that smaller studies that include second-look arthroscopy provide the most convincing evidence for the efficacy of these combined procedures. (10.1016/j.arthro.2017.01.005)
  • [L5] The routine use of arthroscopy has led to the identification of previously unrecognized pathological conditions and significant new information about traditional problems. (10.2106/00004623-198365030-00027)
  • [L4] Diagnostic arthroscopy performed in the setting of an unclear preoperative diagnosis yielded limited diagnostic benefit. (10.1177/1558944716661993)
  • [L1] However, arthroscopy was associated with a shorter hospital stay and significantly lower overall complication rates compared to open surgery. (10.3390/jcm12103574)
  • [L2] Arthroscopic and open approaches have comparable outcome profiles regarding recurrence and complications. (10.1177/1753193417734428)
  • [L4] More prospective studies comparing open and arthroscopic excision are needed to delineate if there is a true functional benefit. (10.1016/j.hcl.2013.08.020)
  • [L4] Arthroscopic treatment can be a safe and effective option with excellent short- and long-term outcomes. (10.1007/s00167-017-4613-8)
  • [L4] Subtalar arthroscopy is a standardised and reproducible procedure with new diagnostic and minimally invasive therapeutic options. (10.1007/s001670050084)
  • [L3] Although patients with prior arthroscopy had some inferior patient-reported outcome scores after MOWHTO, the overall clinical improvements were similar in the arthroscopy and control groups. (10.1177/23259671231175457)
  • [L4] Computerized tomographic arthrography and arthroscopy enabled accurate definition of the anomaly. (10.2106/00004623-198870030-00021)
  • [L4] Good to excellent outcomes can be consistently reached in greater than 80% of patients with arthroscopic debridement and microfracture. (10.1016/j.arthro.2012.04.055)
  • [L4] Long-term follow-up of the procedure shows that the initial improvement in wrist position is not maintained. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2011.10.013)
  • [L4] The needle arthroscopy is a simple, safe, and well tolerated technique, with promise as a diagnostic, scientific, and possibly therapeutic tool in rheumatic diseases, but arthroscopic experience is necessary for this procedure. (10.1007/s00167-002-0329-4)
  • [L5] Full recognition of the potential pitfalls and complications during hip arthroscopy should be acknowledged prior to attempting the first case. (10.1016/j.arthro.2017.01.052)
  • [L4] Surgeons must be vigilant during arthroscopy to avoid overlooking concomitant peripheral tears, as physical examination and MRI provide little diagnostic information. (10.1177/1753193413479479)
  • [L2] Postless hip arthroscopy may adequately be performed with a variety of techniques. (10.1016/j.asmr.2022.09.013)
  • [L5] The article highlights the importance of patient selection, noting surgical indication in symptomatic patients having failed a primary nonoperative protocol, and identifies the need for randomized controlled trials to develop a nonoperative strategy. (10.1016/j.arthro.2017.08.238)
  • [L4] Aggressive early arthroscopic debridement after discovery with the addition of postoperative radiation therapy has proved effective in addressing this potentially serious complication. (10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.050)
  • [L3] Simultaneous bilateral hip arthroscopy for FAI is a safe and effective treatment option with outcomes comparable to staged procedures. (10.1016/j.arthro.2016.03.065)
  • [L4] Arthroscopy allows for the simultaneous treatment of ganglions and other pathologies. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.04.042)
  • [L4] This classification system allows for the ability to evaluate differing repair patterns and their effects on postoperative clinical outcomes. (10.1177/2325967125s00101)
  • [L4] Despite the relative complexity of these injuries, satisfactory wrist function can be achieved with operative treatment in most patients. (10.2106/jbjs.e.00930)
  • [L4] Arthroscopic TFCC treatment in paediatric patients is safe and yielded favourable subjective and objective outcomes and patient/parent satisfaction. (10.1177/1753193418825070)
  • [L4] Arthroscopic arthrolysis compares well with other methods of treatment for stiffness with regard to improvements in range of motion and functional knee scores. (10.1007/s00167-009-0878-x)
  • [L4] In all cases, TILT repair resulted in improved wrist motion and strength. (10.1054/jhsb.1999.0070)
  • [L3] This technique was accurate and reliable in measuring the velocity, range, and smoothness of wrist circumduction. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.08.025)
  • [L5] The article introduces the basic principles of computer aided orthopedic surgery (CAOS), classifying surgical navigation systems by their virtual representation (image-free vs. image-based) and outlining the technical components required for clinical application. (10.1016/j.injury.2004.05.005)
  • [L4] This study questions the validity of the metrics used by the ArthroVR scoring system in its role in evaluation of the surgeon and its use as a measurement device in future studies. (10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.068)
  • [L4] This study demonstrates the initial performance of active-MRI, which may be useful in the investigation of dynamic wrist instability in vivo. (10.1371/journal.pone.0084004)
  • [L5] Advances in 3-dimensional MRI techniques create the opportunity to improve understanding of articular morphology and joint biomechanics, with the potential to enhance preoperative planning and the effectiveness of arthroscopic techniques. (10.1016/j.arthro.2019.06.001)
  • [L5] The authors modified and substantiated a widely used exercise program for patients with nonspecific chronic wrist pain based on recent insights into sensorimotor control principles and wrist kinematics. (10.1016/j.jht.2018.11.002)
  • [L4] While there are some significant differences in range of motion and grip strength, these differences are unlikely to be clinically relevant. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.06.002)
  • [L4] Midcarpal motion of rheumatoid wrists in the flexion-extension plane was better preserved than previously thought. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.11.012)
  • [L4] This study suggests that smartphone-based measurements of wrist range of motion are feasible and highly accurate, making it a powerful tool for outcome studies after wrist surgery. (10.1177/17531934211004454)
  • [L4] The procedure improves the appearance of the wrist and relieves pain without compromising function. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.05.015)
  • [L4] The procedure is associated with a lower risk of flexion loss compared to open dorsal wrist capsulectomy. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.06.020)
  • [L3] The Camera Wrist Tracker demonstrated high test-retest reliability for wrist extension and moderate reliability for flexion. (10.1016/j.jht.2016.07.002)
  • [L5] A thorough wrist examination remains integral to any arthroscopic assessment. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.07.015)
  • [L3] Starting early ROM after surgery enables patients to regain functional wrist and forearm ROM earlier with fewer therapy visits required. (10.1016/j.jht.2009.06.003)
  • [L3] Self-taken photographs and line tracings are unreliable, perhaps falsely lower owing to submaximal effort from task distraction, and we question their current use for remote assessment of wrist ROM. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2019.05.017)
  • [L5] This statement outlines suggested guidelines for the practice of arthroscopic surgery, covering privileges, training, practice standards, continuing education, and performance review to ensure patient safety and surgeon competence. (10.1016/s0749-8063(11)00686-4)
  • [L4] The authors stated that if the results stood over time, the advantages of this arthroscopic technique, namely less morbidity, lower cost, less pain, and preservation of motion, would show that an arthroscopic shoulder stabilization would have great potential for the future. (10.1016/j.arthro.2010.04.009)
  • [L4] Distal radioulnar joint instability in adolescents is often preceded by fracture of the distal radius and is often not an isolated pathoanatomical problem. (10.1177/1558944720966707)
  • [L1] The procedure may reduce the incidence of finger stiffness in patients with type C distal radial fractures. (10.1177/17531934241288216)
  • [L3] Proximal row carpectomy seems to result in slightly better movement of the wrist with fewer surgical complications and no need for hardware removal. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2014.12.035)
  • [L1] The diagnostic test accuracy of X-ray arthrography is limited. (10.1177/1753193411402762)
  • [L4] The outcomes, recurrence, and complications rates after 4 years of follow-up presented in this study support the use of arthroscopy as a treatment for dorsal wrist ganglion. (10.1177/1558944717743601)
  • [L4] Periacetabular osteotomy provides pain relief and improved hip function in most patients over short- to midterm followup. (10.1007/s11999-009-0842-6)
  • [L4] Arthroscopic thermal shrinkage is effective for the majority of the patients with mild to moderate chronic distal radioulnar joint instability in long-term follow-up. (10.1177/1753193420927882)
  • [L3] The arthroscopic findings prior to osteotomy appeared to have little, if any, predictive value in evaluating patients for this procedure. (10.2106/00004623-198365010-00006)
  • [L5] The high overall level of anatomic accuracy (96%) allows consideration of this resource as a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of these joints. (10.1016/j.arthro.2014.03.018)
  • [L4] Dorsal wrist capsular impingement is a clinical diagnosis; magnetic resonance imaging may be helpful in evaluating for other pathologies. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2016.12.012)
  • [L4] It serves as a minimally invasive alternative to open surgery for diagnosis and treatment. (10.1186/s13018-018-1048-y)
  • [L4] Arthroscopic subtalar arthrodesis is gaining in popularity based on evidence of bone fusion in over 90% of cases, with a shorter time to healing, a simpler postoperative course, and fewer complications compared to open surgery. (10.1016/j.otsr.2016.08.002)
  • [L3] This approach is associated with a low incidence of postoperative complications and a quick return to sports activities. (10.1186/s12891-025-08438-w)
  • [L4] A change in treatment plan was made in 47% of cases, indicating that staging arthroscopy is an important step in determining the most appropriate treatment plan for chondral defects. (10.1016/j.arthro.2019.11.049)
  • [L4] At an average follow-up of 4.5 years, 28% of hands had persistent symptoms, but results were scarcely different from the conventional technique with no patient requiring reoperation. (10.1054/jhsb.1999.0226)
  • [L4] Good clinical results observed in patients 10 years after radial shortening osteotomy are likely to remain stable at 20 years after surgery. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2025.04.018)
  • [L4] At an average follow-up of 10 years, proximal row carpectomy is a reliable and durable procedure for patients with Lichtman stage IIIA or IIIB Kienböck's disease. (10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.02.031)

See Also

References

[1] Arthroscopic Versus Open Dorsal Ganglion Excision: A Prospective, Randomized Comparison of Rates of Recurrence and of Residual Pain. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.01.009

[2] Authors' Reply. Arthroscopy. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2017.01.005

[3] Arthroscopic surgery.. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1983. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-198365030-00027

[4] Diagnostic Wrist Arthroscopy for Nonspecific Wrist Pain. HAND. 2016. DOI: 10.1177/1558944716661993

[5] Arthroscopic vs. Open-Ankle Arthrodesis on Fusion Rate in Ankle Osteoarthritis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2023. DOI: 10.3390/jcm12103574

[6] Arthroscopic versus open excision of dorsal ganglion cysts: a systematic review. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2017. DOI: 10.1177/1753193417734428

[7] Arthroscopic Excision of Ganglion Cysts. Hand Clinics. 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.hcl.2013.08.020

[8] Talus bipartitus: a systematic review and report of two cases with arthroscopic treatment. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. 2017. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-017-4613-8

[9] Subtalar arthroscopy – indications and surgical technique. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. 1998. DOI: 10.1007/s001670050084

[11] Effect of Prior Knee Arthroscopy on Midterm Outcomes After Medial Opening-Wedge High Tibial Osteotomy: A Propensity Score–Matched Analysis. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2023. DOI: 10.1177/23259671231175457

[12] Unusual anomaly of the scapula defined by arthroscopy and computerized tomographic arthrography. Report of a case.. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1988. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-198870030-00021

[13] Outcome of Arthroscopic Debridement and Microfracture as the Primary Treatment for Osteochondral Lesions of the Talar Dome. Arthroscopy. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2012.04.055

[14] Long-Term Results of Forearm Shortening and Volar Radiocarpal Capsulotomy for Wrist Flexion Deformity in Children With Amyoplasia. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2011.10.013

[16] Technique of synovial biopsy of metacarpophalangeal joints using the needle arthroscope. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. 2002. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-002-0329-4

[17] Editorial Commentary: Fluid Extravasation in Hip Arthroscopy—A Tough Case Just Got Much Worse. Arthroscopy. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2017.01.052

[19] Incidence and diagnosis of ‘the double lesion’ of the triangular fibrocartilage complex. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2013. DOI: 10.1177/1753193413479479

[20] Postless Arthroscopic Hip Preservation Can be Adequately Performed Using Published Techniques. Arthroscopy, Sports Medicine, and Rehabilitation. 2022. DOI: 10.1016/j.asmr.2022.09.013

[21] Editorial Commentary: Pioneering the Gluteal Interval: Understanding and Treating Undersurface and Full‐Thickness Gluteus Medius Tears of the Hip. Arthroscopy. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2017.08.238

[22] Early Arthroscopic Management Strategies for Patients Developing Moderate to Severe Heterotopic Ossification of the Elbow (SS‐43). Arthroscopy. 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.050

[23] A Comparison of Staged vs Simultaneous Hip Arthroscopy for Selected Patients With Symptomatic, Bilateral Femoroacetabular Impingement. Arthroscopy. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2016.03.065

[24] Ganglions of the Wrist and Associated Triangular Fibrocartilage Lesions: A Prospective Study in Arthroscopically-treated Patients. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.04.042

[25] Paper 44: Medial Meniscus Ramp Tears: An Internationally Developed Surgically Relevant Classification System Based on Tear Morphology. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/2325967125s00101

[26] Chapter 39 Wrist Arthroscopy. 2019.

[28] Fractures of the Dorsal Articular Margin of the Distal Part of the Radius with Dorsal Radiocarpal Subluxation. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 2006. DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.e.00930

[29] Arthroscopic treatment of triangular fibrocartilage complex injuries in paediatric and adolescent patients. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2019. DOI: 10.1177/1753193418825070

[30] Arthroscopic arthrolysis for the treatment of stiffness after total knee replacement gives moderate improvements in range of motion and functional knee scores. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. 2009. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-009-0878-x

[31] Triquetral Impingement Ligament Tear (Tilt). Journal of Hand Surgery. 1999. DOI: 10.1054/jhsb.1999.0070

[32] Assessment of Velocity, Range, and Smoothness of Wrist Circumduction Using Flexible Electrogoniometry. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.08.025

[33] Basic principles of CAOS. Injury. 2004. DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2004.05.005

[34] Arthroscopic Shoulder Simulation: Can a Computer Perceive Expertise? (SS‐61). Arthroscopy. 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.068

[35] Real-Time Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) during Active Wrist Motion—Initial Observations. PLoS ONE. 2013. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084004

[36] Editorial Commentary: Advances in 3‐Dimensional Imaging are the Key to Improving our Surgical Precision in Hip Arthroscopy and Beyond. Arthroscopy. 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2019.06.001

[37] SMoC-Wrist: a sensorimotor control-based exercise program for patients with chronic wrist pain. Journal of Hand Therapy. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jht.2018.11.002

[38] Four-Corner Arthrodesis With Differing Methods of Osteosynthesis: A Systematic Review. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2022. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.06.002

[39] Analysis of Radiocarpal and Midcarpal Motion in Stable and Unstable Rheumatoid Wrists Using 3-Dimensional Computed Tomography. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.11.012

[40] Validation of a smartphone application and wearable sensor for measurements of wrist motions. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2021. DOI: 10.1177/17531934211004454

[41] Isolated Wedge Osteotomy of the Ulna for Mild Madelung’s Deformity. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2007. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.05.015

[42] Arthroscopic Management of Dorsal Wrist Impingement. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.06.020

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